Introduction to the United States - Politics

Week 1 - Introduction
Week 2 - The American Ideology and American Dream
Week 3 - US Constitution
Week 4 - Congress
Week 5 - The Presidency
Week 6 - The Supreme Court
Week 7 - Political and Interest Groups
Week 8 - Policy Making

Week 1 - Introduction

US politics centres on the constitution. People's trust in the government changed over time and there were times when trust falls and rises.

A Brief intro to the U.S. Political System

Ideology (Americanism) - This defines and the belief system and tailors what is discussed. E.g. an NHS type of health system is not implemented.
Institutions - Congress, president, Supreme Court - they operate within a power structure.
Structures of Power - The US system is a tripartile system:

There is the executive, legislative and judicial powers in all systems but the founding fathers separated them out, as they did not like the UK mixing them together.
Executive - power to execute the law
Legislative - make the law
There is a power called "checks and balances". This is to stop each institution becoming too powerful. E.g. Congress has to declare war but the president is the head of the military.

Federalism - The central/federal government is the central government but shares power with the 50 centres. This is duel sovereignty.
Policies - They are the output of the political system as laws.

Week 2 - The American Ideology and the American Dream

An ideology is how you want society to be and is a guideline. It shapes how you view events.
"It has been our fate as nation not to have ideologies, but to be one." Richard Hofstadter.
America has its own ideology and it fits alongside Communism, Capitalism, etc

The American Ideology

Liberty/Freedom - Right to move, inherit wealth, freedom from religious ands state obsession.

Equality - They believe in the first 2 types of equality.
Equality of opportunity - everyone has a chance to succeed via education.
Equality of esteem - people respect each other (calling people Sir and Madam).
Equality of outcome - material condition where people have an equal standard of living.

Democracy - "Government of the people, by the people, for the people."Abraham Lincoln
The 15th Amendment in 1870 allowed black Americans to vote. The Jim Crow laws were used to exclude blacks from voting. Some of these laws were not removed until 1964. Women were not allowed to vote until 1920. American democracy is sometimes described as “majoritarian”. E.g. they have the death penalty, as that is what the people want.

Individualism - Americans are suspicious of collectives. There are contradictions in that not everyone is equal. People are expected to believe in this ideology and confirm to it. There is not very much different between the American political parties.

The American Dream – the idea that any one can make it in America regardless of their background. “Being too big for your boot” does not mean anything in US as people strive to be ambitious.

American Exceptalism - It has its own ideas, values and institutions. They see that their ways are the only way of doing things.

Political Culture vs. Dominant Ideology – political culture = bottom up (from the people). Dominant ideology = top down (from the state). The people have an ideology imposed on them from above.

Week 3 - US Constitution

US Constitution – its importance
It defines what it means to be an American. It has only gone through 27 Amendments in 200 years. In 1791, the Bill of Rights brought in 10 Amendments. It defines the American relationship with the government. The Bill of Rights protects the rights of the individual. Change is controlled and is through the construction.

Origin of the Constitution

Historical - There was a desire for the right government and the US is built on immigration. The first design of the government was very weak and with strong state government. People where unhappy about it and rebelled. A 2^nd constitution was drawn up as the 1st did not work.

Philosophical - Locke thought people give up some rights in order to be protected by government. Montequieu thought that government should be divided up as executive, legislative and judicial.

Political - The founding fathers realised that the small states needed protecting too. Congress was split so that the Senate had 2 representatives of each state. The house was made up of a proportion of the population.

Economics – slavery was not abolished because it would prevent the southern states joining the Constitution.

Features of the Constitution

It was established presidential powers – chief of army, diplomat, power to veto bills, grant pardons, appointing officer and power execute the law.
The Supreme Court - 1803 Margaret vs. Madison – the court assumed the power of judicial review and can rule a law unconstitutional.
The separation of powers stops each powerful institution getting too powerful. In Virginian Congress took on the roles of the executive and judicial. The fathers realised this and used checks and Balances.
A law needs first to be passed by the House and the Senate and goes to the president for veto. The Senate and House can override the president if 2/3 of the members agree. The Supreme Court can stop a bill if it is deemed unconstitutional. The people can appeal against the rulings of the Supreme Court.

Neustadt: Separation of powers + checks and balances = separated Institutions sharing power.

Individual Rights – they were established in 1791 with the Bill of Rights.

1690 - John Locke – Two Treaties on Government
1748 - Baron de Montequieu, Spirit of the Laws
1756 -1763 - 7 Years War
1965 - Stamp Act
1773 - Tea Act
1774 - First Constitutional Congress – rising army against the British
April 1775 - War of Independence, Lexington, Massachusetts
May 1775 - Second Constitutional Congress
July 1776 - Declaration of Independence. Jefferson claimed George III had no legitimate control over America.
Articles of Confederation – written in 1777 and ratified in 1781
1786 - Shay’s Rebellion – angry rebelling farmers
1787 - Constitutional Convention
1789 - Ratification of Constitution
1991 - Ratification of Bill of Rights

Week 4 - Congress

The founding fathers wanted Congress to be the "powerhouse". Congress can be described as the most powerful legislature. Congress is made of the House of Representatives (lower chamber)and the Senate (upper chamber). The two-chamber system is called a bicameral.

House

Members are from local districts
2 year term
May impeach federal officials
Large – 435 members
Makes formal rules
Debate is limited
The floor action is controlled
Less prestigious and less media attention
Originates bills for raising revenues
Local or narrow leadership

Senate

Members are from the entire state
6 year term
Originally (until 1913) elected by state legislatures
May convict federal officials of impeachable offences
Small – 100 members
rules and restrictions
is extended
Unanimous consent rules
More prestige and more media attention
Has power to advise the president in, and to consent to, presidential appointments and treaties
National leadership

The house listens to the people in design. Where there are more people in a state, the more people from a state are represented in the House.
California – 52 representatives – Pop. 30 million
Alaska – 1 representative – Pop. ½ million

The Senate has 2 members per state. The Senate is a check and balance on the House. The founding fathers were concerned about mob rule and too much democracy. The most important person in the House is the “Speaker”. The most important person in the Senate is the “Majority Leader”.
There have been changes in Congress since 1913 (Institutional Evolution):

A change in size – more states made and proportions of representatives per person has changed.
Congress is more concerned with bigger issues and so has a greater workload.

Structures and Procedures

Committees – they do most of the work. There are 95 sub-committees in each chamber. There are about 250 working groups. The committees provide agenda setting functions. E.g. all foreign affairs bills start in one committee. Members of a sub-committee are experts in the subject.
Formal rules and informal leaders – the majority parties are the chairmen of the committees.
Rules and precedents – Congress used to be chaotic.

The Rules of Congress

Representation
Descriptive and demographic representation – does Congress have the same percentage of natives in Congress as it does in the US? It is not demographic.
Symbolic representation – do people feel represented by Congress?
Service representation – a person can write to the members of Congress to sort out their problems.
Delegates do the work of the people and their interests.
Representatives – members of Congress do what they think is best for the people.

Oversight and Maintaining Checks and Balances

Congress approves all expenditure
Congress can override a presidential veto
President chooses his cabinet and federal judicial posts but Congress can refuse to ratify these people.
Power to impeach a president and remove him from office.

Legislation - No bill can become law without the approval of the House and the Senate.

Week 5 - The Presidency - Selection and Roles

Who can run? And who does?

Live in the USA for 14 consecutive years
Over 35 years old
Born in the USA

They are usually white Anglo-Saxon males. Presidents are usually senators, military leaders and state governors. Originally presidents were mostly governors then senators and now governors in the trends. 4 out of the last presidents were governors. Governors may lack knowledge of Washington but Senators know about this.

Election Campaigns

Primaries - It is an “intra-party election” to chose the candidate that will represent them. It is series of elections done by each state.

Pre-primaries – the candidates are checking to see if they can get the right financial backing. They will need over $20 million dollars to run for President.
After JFK, the importance of the primaries grew (1960s). There are about 100 elections happening. The people who vote vary from state to state. Some states only allow registered party supporters to vote. The elections are held between Jan and May. New Hampshire is where the first election takes place. Some states hold “caucuses” instead of elections. A group of people will group together and vote on the candidates and listen to each one.

Party Conventions – every 4 years it takes place and lasts for a few days. A party platform is drawn up based on what the party believe. It does not mean a lot after it is written. The convention launches the candidate.

General Elections – it is an “inter-party election”. Millions of dollars are spent of advertising.
The Americans do not vote directly for their presidential candidate. They vote for Electoral College electors. They win by getting the most Electoral College votes totalling 538. It is based on the number of senators and representatives.
Alaska – 72 senators and 1 representative = 3 college votes. California gets 54 college votes. The majority is over 270 votes.
Each party nominates candidates to be the president and a vice president. Each party has 25 electors who have been chosen by the party. Each party has the public choosing the party who wins for the state. This winning party sends 25 of their chosen people to vote for them in the Electoral College. The electors can votes for whomever they want to but are nominated by their party.

Powers and Powers of the President

Veto
Can choose his cabinet
Appointing diplomat
Head of state
Chief executive

All presidents have the same powers but not all of them are powerful.
After 1969, the presidents are largely seen as underachievers and failures. It is worth taking a look at the personality and the time the people were in office (context).

Week 6 - The Supreme Court

Why was it established?
Articles of Confederation (1781-1797) - each of the 13 states had their own judicial system without any national system.
Each state now has its own laws as long as they confirm to federal law. The top court of the federal law is the Supreme Court and it is an appeals court.

Composition
It has 9 members: 8 associate justices and one 1 chief justice. Each has 1 vote. For decisions to be made, it has to be at least 5 to 4.

Appointment

The justices are nominated because of their party affiliation but they can’t be too radical or political.

Removal – they are for life. They can resign or die in office and can be impeached.

Internal Workings
7,000 cases come to the court a year and they chose 150-200 cases to pursue. If you lose in a lower court, you can appeal to the Supreme Court. It makes certain (certionari) the rulings. People not directly involved in the case can submit an Amicus Curiae briefs such as interest groups. There is a public hearing. Each lawyer is only given 30 minutes to state his or her case orally. The justices meet together. The court can:

Dismiss the case
Refer the case for a re-argument
Affirm the decision of the law courts
Revert the decisions of the law courts.

Power

Original Jurisdiction - Their cases go straight to the Supreme Court if its “original jurisdiction”.
Appellate Jurisdiction – it is the final ruling and can only take a case up if it reaches it by the appeals system.
Interpretation – it has the power to define what the Constitution means
Judicial Review – In 1803, with Marbury vs. Madison, it declared some laws were unconstitutional.

Constraints

Sword - It cannot implement its decision so the lower courts have to do it.

1954 – Brown vs. Board of Education – segregation between blacks and whites is unconstitutional in schools but it took the south 10 years to implement it. It relied on the lower courts, local officials etc to implement.

Purse – it has no power to finance its decisions.
Appointment – the president’s power of appointment can change the ideologies of the court by which they appoint.
Impeachment – a justice can be removed.
Constitutional Amendments – a ruling by the Supreme Court can be overturned by an amendment.
Congress - A minority of the cases are based on constitutional law but Congress writing a new law can overturn these. It can also add new people to the composition of the court and change the rules in which it operates.
Public Opinion – it is not elected but public opinion is important, as it has no power of the purse or the sword. If it becomes too distant, it will lose its prestige and if it does, people will ignore its rulings.

Week 7 - Political and Interest Groups

There are no direct reference to political or interest groups in the Constitution.

2 party system
It comes from the Civil War. US parties do not have fixed ideologies or supporters. They are thought of as "loose coalitions of diverse interests". During the New Deal, there was a coalition that has white southerners, Jews, blue-collar workers in the North, Roman Catholics and African Americans and the intellects that formed the Democrats.

Why no 3rd Party?
There have been but they do not last long. A first past the post system discriminates against other parties. In 1971 and 1974, Federal Elections Act (FECA) discriminated against small parties by financing large parties. The large parties steal small parties’ ideas.

Organisation
Parties are weak on a national level. The parties do not choose their own candidates but are chosen by the people via the primaries. The parties are different at state level to national.

Do Parties Matter?
Parties are linkages between the people and the government.
They try to aggregate, conciliate and articulate demands but it's hard when there are so many diverse views of the people.

Cueing - parties summarise and make choices easy for voters, as we already understand a parties' belief as in the UK but not in America. (Tories are pro free market), Cueing does not work well in the US.
Selection and staffing - parties make candidates accountable to the people by having re-elections.
Coordination - parties only tend to link the institutions together except during times of crisis.
Stability - Americans parties listen to smaller parties and listening to people in Congress and this helps stability.

Interest Groups
The number of interest groups has grown massively. They are more powerful as the party system is so weak. People are now more interested in single issues. Once people have the essential things they need to live, their minds can go onto other issues.

Week 8 - Policy Making

Problem Definition and Agenda Setting
Not all problems are worthy of government attention but are in Europe, e.g. over 40 million people have no healthcare.
How does an individual problem become a public problem? A local politician can change things, individuals, private court cases and senate hearings via the media. When the problem becomes recognised nationally, they have a national agenda. Cobb and Elder (1972) - said of systematic problems and it moves as an institutional problem when the government recognises it.

Formulation of Alternatives - They look at competing solutions. They tend to borrow interest groups' solutions.

Policy Implementation - state bureaucracies implement changes by telling the people about the new law. All new laws are documented in the "Federal Register" and are 1000s of pages long. Congress oversee its implementing.

Policy Evaluation - it is hard to assess how well a change has worked.

Economic Policies - Socialist or anti-business policies are not on the agenda. Up to the 1930s, government involvement in the economy would make markets inefficient people thought. Protectionism vs. Free trader e.g. put import blocks on importing Asian steel to protect their industry.
Micro policies, e.g. changing the courses taught at a Uni as it affects the employment labour.
Macro polices, e.g. interest rates, money supply. The Central Bank is independent.